mineral and rock

geology museums

Today the museum continuous to develop into a center for engaging visitor in developing a deeper understanding the dynamic world in which we live. our mineral , rock and fossil collection have the power to educate and inspire visitors in all of age.

mineral

Minerals are substance that are formed naturally in the earth . Minerals must be solid, inorganic, have a crystal structure, and happen naturally (by themselves). A mineral can be made of single chemical element or more usually a compound. There are over 4,000 types of known minerals. Two common minerals are quarzt and feldspar.Minerals are different from rock

mineral classification

Minerals are broadly classified in to two categories: Silicate and non-Silicate minerals.

Silicate Minerals
The most commonly found group of mineral in the Earth's crust is the silicate group. Almost all silicate minerals have silicon and oxygen as their primary components. Most silicate minerals are formed by the cooling of molten rocks. As the molten rocks come closer to the surface inside the Earth's crust, they start cooling very fast and combine with the most abundant element in the Earth's crust, silicon. Silicate minerals constitute approximately 90% of the Earth's crust. Fayalite (Fe₂SiO₄)Zircon (ZrSiO₄), Enstatite (MgSiO₃), Ferrosilite (FeSiO₃) are some examples of sulphate minerals.

Non-Silicate Minerals

• There is a complete range of non-silicate minerals. Some of these minerals are formed when there is cooling of magma, while some others are formed when water in them evaporates, or due to minerals decomposition. The non-silicates can be further classified in to different groups which are: elements, oxides, carbonates, sulphates, and many more which are not commonly found naturally. Most of these groups have their own sub-categories. But, let us discuss these groups first:

• :elements Many pure elements are found in the form of minerals in ores or mines. For example, uncombined carbon is often found in its pure state in the form of graphite or more rarely as diamond. Gold, silver and sulfur are other elements which are also found in its pure state. Even though these are pure elements they qualify to be known as minerals, but no chemical process is required on them further.
• oxide: When an ore is found in which one or more elements are combined with oxygen, it is an oxide mineral. These may have chemical formulas of type XO (MgO, ZnO, CuO, etc.), X₂O (Cu₂O), X₂O₃ (Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃), XO₂ (MnO₂, SnO₂) and XY₂O₄ (MgAl₂O₄, FeCr₂O₄). The oxide minerals, are mostly of metallic elements. Example: hematite, magnetite, cuprite. Silicates and oxides are the most common types of minerals in volcanoes, especially after an eruption.
• Carbonates: The carbonate type of minerals are formed when a single carbonate ion (CO₃^2-) reacts with a metal ion of complementing polarity. Example: siderite (FeCO₃), smithsonite (ZnCO₃), calcite (CaCO₃). Carbonate minerals are used in making cement and other bonding material.
• Sulphates: The mineral class which includes the sulfate ion (SO₄^2-) within its molecular structure, is categorized as sulphate mineral. Minerals like Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) and Barite (BaSO₄) are examples of sulphate minerals.
• Organic Minerals: This class of minerals include biogenic substances, genesis or origin of which can be attributed to a geological processes. Organic minerals include all types of oxalates, mellitates, citrates, cyanates, acetates, formates, hydrocarbons, etc. Example of organic mineral includes whewellite, moolooite, mellite, fichtelite, carpathite, evenkite and abelsonite.

ENDANGERED SPECIES

• Endangered species are species animals or plants that are facing the threat of becoming extinct.Examples of endangered species of animals are the orang utan,rhinoceros,tapir,giant panda and elephant. Examples of endangered species of plants are rafflesia and pitcher plants. Many species of animals and plants become endangered species because of human activities.Human activities that cause the species to become extinct include

1. illegal and excessive logging
2. illegal and excessive hunting
3. excessive development
   

The road not taken

two road diverged in a yellow wood,
and sorry i could not travel both
and be one traveler,long i stood
and looked down one as far as i could
to where it bent in the undergrowth;

then took the other,as just as fair,
and having perhaps the better claim,
because it was grassy and wanted wear;
though as for that the passing there
had worn them really about the same,

FUNGI

Examples of fungi are mould and yeast
mould can be found on the rotten food,mouldy bread, trees and forest floors.
bacteria

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TECHNOLOGY

ADVANTAGES OF TECHNOLOGY

Technology gives us many advantages.
Examples of the advantages of technology are as shown below

• machines help to increase productivity in agriculture
• modern transport enables us to travel faster and more conveniently
• invention of modern communication enables us to communicate with other people in any place of the world.
• machines help to increase productivity and reduce cost in factories.

DISADVANTAGES OF TECHNOLOGY

Technology also brings disadvantages to mankind and the environment
Examples of disadvantages of technology are as shown below

• factories release toxic gases and waste products that cause air and water pollution
• oil spills cause the extinction of aquatic life
• excessive logging activities with modern tools cause the extinction of living things and the destruction of the environment
• the increasing use of resources such as petroleum causes the depletion of natural resources
• the invention of destructive weapons causes destruction of property and kills many people
  

WHAT IS A ROBOT

A robot is a machine. It can be programmed to carry out different functions. It is designed to carry out tasks repeatedly, with speed and accuracy. Robots are often used in industries which involve heavy work or repetitive work and in the handling of hazardous materials.
Robots can be used in environments where it is risky for humans. For example, in deep mines where the air quality is bad or where there is a danger of tunnel collapse.
Robots can also be used in situations where the work to be done is repetitive because they do not encounter problems of boredom or fatigue.
Robots are more suitable where the work is tedious or the hour are long. Robots also do the work of many people engaged in a task. This will save on human labour.
Robots can work at a higher level of accuracy and consistency for a longer period than a person can. It is easier for a company therefore. to calculate productivity rates if robots are used. Furthermore, the quality of the products would be more consistent, and quality control in such a factory would be an easier task.
There are different types of robots. The vast majority of robots do not look anything like a human being.
Some types of robots exhibited in this exhibition are cleaner Bots for home user,Spider Bots for space explorations, Rescue Bots for emergency rescue work and Battle Bots to be used in
wars.
Robots can also be used in urban search and rescue(USAR) operations which is the rescue of people trapped under collapsed man-made structures, due to the earthquakes and bombing. Robots can go beyond the reach and sences of recue workers and help locate trapped survivors more quickly and safely.

MONSOON HISTORY

The air is wet,soaks
Into mattresses,and curls
In apparitions of smoke.
Like fat white slugs furled
Among the timber,
Or silver fish tunneling
The damp linen covers
Of schoolbooks,or working
Quietly like centipedes,
The air walking everywhere
On its hundred feet
Is filled with the glare
On tropical water.

Again we are taken over
By clouds and rolling darkness.
Small snails appear
Clashing their timid horns
Among the morning glory
Vines.

SMOKING -THE SILENT KILLER

Cigarette smoke can be more hazardous to non- smokers than to the smokes themselves.

Effect

• lung cancer
• eye irritation
• headache
• cough
• sore throat
• asthma
• dizziness
  
• respiratory disease
• miscarriages
• babies being born with a low birth weight

How to quit smoking

• Nico stop- from of patches
• Quit -Ezy -herbal tablet

Effort to curb smoking :-

1. law stating that vendors are not allowed to sell cigarettes to anyone under the age of 18
2. put pictures of disease lungs caused by smoking
3. use poster- educate the public about toxic substance in cigarettes
4. campaigns -particularly in schools
   

Reason why people stop smoking

1. symptoms of illness-tired and could not concentrate
2. peer pressure - people avoid to the smoker (bad breath)
3. effect of government measures - government imposed a ban on cigarette advertisements
   

WATER POLLUTION

The rivers and seas have been us as dumping grounds for all kinds of waste materials. We throw rubbish into the drains that lead to the rivers.Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water ; and, in almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities.
Factories dispose of their waste materials into the rivers.

Garbage strewn across a sandy area

These waste materials contain toxic and poisonous substances.The rivers and sea can become polluted.The poisonous waste material can kill fish. Since we also depend on our rivers and sea for food,our health can be affected if we eat fish from polluted waters. Sometimes oil from ships spills into the seas and oceans. The oil not only pollutes the seas and the oceans but pollutes the beaches too. This can destroy the habitat of water organisms.

MIGRATION STRATEGIES

decision require migration of seismic data in practice related to

1. appropriate migration strategies
   
2. migration algorithm compatible with strategy
3. appropriate parameter
4. migration velocities

Migration strategies include:-

1. 2- D versus 3 -D migration
2. post-stack versus pres-tack migration
   
3. time versus depth migration
   

TYPE OF MIGRATION

1. KICHHOFF MIGRATION

advantage :-

• can handle all dip up 90 degree
  
• offer full wave

disadvantage:-

• can be cumbersome handly lateral v variation
• it is computational expensive

2. FINITE DIFFERENT MIGRATION

advantage :-

• can handle all type v variations
  

disadvantage:-

• dip id limited
• it is relatively computational expensive because data transfer operation in the recursion algorithm.

3. F-K MIGRATION

advantage:-

• can handle all dip up 90 degree
• it computational inexpensive

disadvantage:-

• cannot accommodate multivalue v point in section
• distortion occur when t-v fn vary rapidly
• has great difficulty honoring lateral in v charge
  

MIGRATION ALGORITHMS

3 MAIN CATEGORIES:-

1. BASED ON INTEGRAL SOLUTION TO SOLAR WAVE EXAMPLE KICHOFF MIGRATION
2. BASED ON FINITE DIFFERENT SOLUTION
3. BASED ON F-WAVENUMBER IMPLEMENTATION

F-K MIGRATION BASED ON CONTANT-V ASSUMPTION INVOLVE A COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION FROM f to v WAVE NUMBER AXIS H WAVENUMBER KEPT UNCHANGED.

GLOBAL WARMING

CO2 is a greenhouse gas that strongly absorbs infrared radiation and plays a major role in warming the lower atmosphere. CO2 has been increasing steadily in the atmosphere due to the burning of fossil fuel. However, deforestation is also adding to this increase as tropical rain forests are cut down and replaced with plants less efficient in removing CO2 from the atmosphere. Trace gases sush as methane ,nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons, all of which readily absorb infrared radiation. The increase in these gases is about equal to CO2 in its ability to enhance the atmospheric greenhouse effect. Increasing concentration of greenhouse gases will result in a mean global warming of surface air between 1.4 and 5.8 C above the average surface air temperature of 1990. The most abundant greenhouse gasses will produce a positive feedback on the climate system by enhancing the atmospheric greenhouse effect and accelerating the temperature rise.

HALOS

A ring of light encircling and extending outward from the sun or moon is called a halo.The most common type of halo is the 22 halo- a ring of light 22 from the sun or moon. A halo froms when tiny suspended column-type ice crystals become randomly oriented as air molecules constantly bump against them. The refraction of light rays through these crystals forms a halo. A halo usually seen as a bright, white ring ,but there are refraction effects that can cause it to have color.

clouds

clouds are aesthetically appealing and add excitement to the atmosphere. Without them,there would be no rain or snow, thunder,lightning,rainbow or halos.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS
1. HIGH CLOUDS
-cirrus
-cirrostratus
-cirrocumulus

2. middle clouds
- altostratus
-altocumulus

3. low clouds
- stratus
-stratocumulus
-nimbostratus

4. clouds with vertical development
- cumulus
-cumulonimbus


CLOUD IDENTIFICATION

1. CIRRUS

cirrus which are thin,wispy, clouds blown by high winds into long streamers called mares' tail. They can look like a white, feathery patch with a faint wisp of atail at one end. Cirrus clouds usually move across the sky from west to east, indicating the prevailing winds at their elevation.
2. CIRROCUMULUS

Clouds seen less frequently than cirrus, appear as small. rounded. white puffs that may occur individually or in long rows.

3.CIRROSTRATUS

which are so thin that the sun and moon can be clearly seen through them. A wide spread high cloud composed of ice crystals, that is normally white and usually covers a large portion of the sky.
4. ALTOCUMULUS

altocumulus are middle cloud that appear as gray, puffy masses,sometimes rolled out in parallel waves or bands. it Composed of water droplets and ice crystals at elevation usually between 2000m and 7000m above the surface.


5. ALTOSTRATUS

It gray or blue-gray cloud that often covers the entire sky over an area that extends over many hundreds of square kilometers.The gray color, height and dimmes of the sun are good clues to identifying an altostratus

6. NIMBOSTRATUS
It is dark gray,"WET" -looking cloud ever associated with more or less continuously falling rain or snow.The base of nimbostratus cloud is normally impossible to identify clearly and is easily confused with the altostatus.

7. SRATOCUMULUS

It appear in rows. in patches, or as rounded masses with blue sky visible between the individual clouds elements. A low, lumpy- looking wide spread cloud with dark and light shading.

8. STRATUS

The low, unifrom,grayish -looking cloud typically has a base below 2000m . Drizzle may fall from its base. It is distinguished from altostratus in that the sun is not usually visible through stratus.

9. CUMULUS

Small ,puffy clouds with relatively flat bases and limited vertical growth

10. CUMULONIMBUS

If a cumulus congestus continues to grow vertically it develops in a giant cumulonimbus- a thunderstorm cloud. Lightning, thunder and even tornadoes are associated with cumulonimbus.

ACID RAIN

SOURCE OF ACID RAIN

1. man -made air pollution

• industries
• smoking
• transportation
• utilities
  
• open burning
• burning fuel

2. natural air pollution

• forest fire
• volcanic eruptions
• methane emission cattle

EFFECT

1. damage building and physical structures
2. plant and animal unhealthy
   
3. human health effect - brain damage, kidney problems,other health risk
4. aquatic flora and fauna unhealthy

AVOIDING RESPONSE

1. stop smoking
2. walk,carpool use public transport
3. support care environment group
4. stop burning waste
5. conserve water and electricity
   

EFFECT OF OZONE

EFFECT OF OZONE

OZONE

• most important air pollutant affecting human health
• molecule built of 3 of atom O
• when contact with surface release extra force in form chemical energy
• this energy cause damage to sensitive tissue in lower and upper airways.

OZONE FORMATION

• product of solar energy and photochemical reaction of pollutants.Concentration highest when sunlight most instense.
• reaches peak levels during the middle of the day in the summer month.
• types air pollution pattern is diurnal and seasonal variation

OZONE AIR QUALITY STANDART

• ozone level more than 0.08 ppm averaged over 8 h is considered unhealthful
• the effect of ozone on people

- irritation of nose and throat
- increased mucus production and tendency to cough
- eye irritation and headaches
- chest pain and difficulty take a deep breath without coughing

AIR POLLUTION

AIR POLLUTION

Secondary pollutants are form in atmosphere throungh chemical and photochemical reaction from primary pollutants

example

1. asid sulfuric-
   

cause respiratory problems
effect- asid sulfuric exist in particle/droplets in the air if released to atmosphere
- it dissolves when mix with water. It has moderate acute(short term)toxicity aquatic life. Asid sulfuric very corrosive and badly burn plants, bird or land animal exposed to it. It has moderate chronic (long-term) toxicity to aquatic life. Chronic effect not determined on plants,bird or land animals.Small quantity sulfuric asid will neutralized by natural alkalinity in aquatic system.Concentration of asid sulfuric high because emission by industrial.
- asid sulfuric can dissolve in clouds,fog.rain.dew or snow. the result is it dilute acid solutions.

2. nitrogen dioxide -give air the brownish coloration

• nitrogen oxides produce during combustion process.
• 80% the nitrogen oxides telease immediately in form nitric oxide (NO)
• Oxidation during the day causes NO2 to form nitric acid and nitrate particle.
• in the dark- NO2 + ozone = very reactive radical
• - free radical + organic compound(in air) = nitrogen organic compound

GLOBAL CLIMATE

GLOBAL CLIMATE

• factor regulate global climate
• how climated classified
• examine different type of climate

climate control factor produce the climate

1. intensity of sunshine and its variation of latitude
2. distribution of land and water
3. ocean currents
4. prevailing wind
5. positions of high and low pressure areas
6. mountain barries
7. altitude